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21cm; }IntroductionIn the eighteenth-century society,women were allowed to write as long as their works focused on womenand women’s subjects only, such as love and marriage. Moreover, theirinvestigations of those subjects had to remain within the boundariessettled by male literary traditions. Since most of women writers didso to earn money, they needed to be accepted by both male and femalereaders. Being radical did not give women writers the opportunity tobe vastly read (Craft 821). In a world where women suffered fromstrict behavioural restrictions and where conduct literaturepredominated, women writers had to elaborate diverse strategies inorder to criticise the standards established at that time withoutbeing censored or banished from the writers’ world (Craft 822).Indeed, numerous books intended to teach women how to behave properlyand what qualities they should acquire, including a “submissivetemper” and the repression of their passions. In other words,qualities admired in men, for instance independence, had to besuppressed (Harrington 44).
Their role was limited to affectiveabilities such as tenderness, benevolence, sensibility and virtue.Secluded within the domestic sphere, they were considered as”moralising agents of society” who were meant to keep calm andtranquility in the household (Harrington 42). Facing suchconstraints, several female writers, notably Eliza Haywood, decidedto give voice to these oppressed women.
In her novel Fantomina(1724), Eliza Haywood’seponymous heroine Fantomina adopts different roles in order to seducemultiple times the same man, Beauplaisir. Through her story, Haywoodcautiously displays eighteenth-century women’s conditions, includinghers, and their ways to surmount these restrictions throughoutmasquerade. Fantomina’s high-class status Asfor Fantomina’s real identity, readers do not gather enoughinformation to determinate precisely who she is, except for the factshe is a “Lady of distinguished Birth, Beauty, Wit, and Spirit,”(41) which means that she possesses a high social status which forcesher to conform to restrictive behavioural standards.
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For instance,her “Quality and reputed Virtue kept him (Beauplaisir) from usingher with that Freedom,” (42) which signifies that women from highrank are, in a way, unattainable and men ought to remain reservedwhen approaching them instead of seducing them frankly. Obviously,the presence of such constraints are accompanied by consequences ifthey are transgressed. As Fantomina almost reveals her real identityto Beauplaisir to avoid a sexual relationship with him, she isabruptly stopped by the thought of “being expos’d” and of”publick Ridicule” (46). This exposes the pressure societyexercises over its members. Indeed, Fantomina would rather engage inan unwanted sexual intercourse than face dishonour.
Moreover, shereflects upon her condition, after being raped by Beauplaisir, andcomes to the conclusion that she might have lost her virtue since shelost her virginity but she still “had Discernment to foresee, andavoid all those Ills which might attend the Loss of her Reputation”(49). This statement suggests that reputation is more valuable thanvirtue, maybe because virtue is intrinsic to the soul whereasreputation is the public appearance of oneself. Regarding theconservation of her secret identity and the avoiding of publicexposition, Fantomina appears strongly confident: “I shall hear noWhispers as I pass,-She is Forasaken:-The odious Word Forsakenwill never wound my Ears; nor will my Wrongs excite either the Mirthor Pity of the talking World,” (49) signifying that rumours willnot reach her ears since the identity of the forsaken one will not bediscovered. Her optimistic temper might be explained by the numerousprecautions she takes: first, she makes “no Person in the World aConfident in it”, meaning she is the only one who is aware of hermasquerade and secondly, she conceals “from Beauplaisir himself theknowledge who she was” (50). This suggests that, in the case wheretheir affair was revealed, Beauplaisir would not be able to humiliateher publicly.
Furthermore, she “was never miss’d from any Assemblyshe had been accustomed to frequent,” (50) which signifies that shecontinues to attend events where she is expected to be seen as a ladyof high class. She also rents different houses as she adopts newroles to stay in control and avoid suspicion at the same time (50 and62), and she constantly manages to transform her physical appearanceas well as characteristics of her own personality. For instance, sheanswers Beauplaisir’s questions “with such seeming Innocence”(53) when she disguises herself into a maid, and darkens her “Habitand her Air” (54) as she switches into the sorrowful widow Boomer.In other words, she mentally develops the trait of innocence whenperforming the role of a maid and physically adopts the personage ofa widow. Her talent for performance is acknowledged by Eliza Haywoodherself as she intervenes within the text. She emphasizes the factthat Fantomina was so admirably skill’d inthe Art of feigning, that she had the Power of putting on almost what Face shepleas’d, and knew so exactly how to form her Behaviour to the Charactershe represented, that all the Comedians at both Playhouses are infinitelyshort of her Performances (57). Possessing such a talent forperforming allows Fantomina to experiment what women from otherclasses experience, beginning with prostitutes who are allowed to befree with men.
Fantomina in the role of theprostitute Asintroduced above, the idea to adopt the role of a prostitute comes toFantomina’s mind when she is at the Play. More interested in whathappens in the Pit than in the Play itself, she observes howprostitutes are addressed by gentlemen and, “having at that Time noother Aim, than the Gratification of an innocent Curiosity,” (42)dresses up as a prostitute the following night to experience theroutine of these women for the sake of her own curiosity. AsBeauplaisir approaches her, she starts to appreciate “conversingwith him in this free and unrestrain’d Manner” (43). Fantominaseems in fact to enjoy this more direct and sincere way of talkingwhich deeply contrasts with the polite and refined manners she ishabituated to encounter. She enables herself to perform a role shehas “independently conceived for herself- to achieve an affectiveexpression of female passion which would, in another setting, bedisastrous and unavailing” (Anderson 1). Althoughher masquerade allows her to escape from the constraints imposed bythe high class, her role rapidly loses its appeal as Beauplaisir”resolv’d not to part from her without the Gratifications of thoseDesires she had inspir’d,” (43) meaning that he is determined tohave sexual relations with her. She “found herself involv’d in aDifficulty, which before never enter’d into her Head, but which sheknew not well how to get over” (43).
This suggests that she did notanticipate prostitutes’ constraints, that is to say their duty toprovide sex in exchange for money. Her reaction after Beauplaisirruins her virginity is impulsive: “Her tears” and “theDistraction she appeared in, after the ruinous Extasy was past,”(46) the moment she realises that “she had nothing left to give”and her “Air of Disdain” (47) as Beauplaisir pays for herservices provoke Beauplaisir into questioning her real profession. Asshe confesses to be in truth “the Daughter of a Country Gentleman,”(48) Beauplaisir trusts her and yet “did not doubt by the Beginningof her Conduct, but that in the End she would be in Reality, theThing she so artfully had counterfeited,” (48) suggesting thatFantomina would eventually become a prostitute. This scene portrays asociety in which women are betrayed into prostitution by men andthereby considered as sexual objects whose condition allows them nochoice to refuse sexual demands. In addition to her humiliation,Fantomina soon realises that she has lost her value to the eyes ofBeauplaisir: her charms “soon lost their Poinancy, and grewtasteless and insipid” (50).
This distance that grows between herlover and herself provokes in her a burning desire to possess himagain. Disguising herself for the purpose of curiosity at first, heraim is clearer than ever now: Her Design was once more toengage him, to hear him sigh, to see him languish, to feel thestrenuous Pressures of his eager Arms, to be compelled, to be sweetly forc’d to whatshe wished with equal Ardour, was what she wanted (51). Thepreviously virtuous stately lady seems to have developed a taste forflesh and now craves for Beauplaisir.
In order to seduce him again,she adopts a new role: she becomes Beauplaisir’s maid. This time, shedoes not need to open her mouth or do anything special to trick him:as soon as he sees her, Beauplaisir gives her “two or three heartykisses” (52) and waits only until the next morning to satisfy histhirst for women as he “lost the Power of containing himself”(53). In this situation, Celia, Fantomina’s name as a maid, iswilling to engage in a sexual relationship with Beauplaisir. However,it was not necessarily the case for all eighteenth-century countrymaids.
Their role was “making the Gentlemen’s Beds, getting themtheir Breakfasts, and waiting on them in their Chambers” (52). Thefirst two tasks seem appropriate but the last one resembles strangelythe prostitute’s. Luckily for Celia, Beauplaisir is the only man inthe house, so she “was in no Apprehensions of any Amorous Violence”(52). “Apprehensions” reflect the agitation that country maidsmight feel when forced (the narrator uses the word “Violence”) tosexually satisfy men. The verbs used in the description of howtactile Beauplaisir is with his maid suggest that these women do notseem to have choice either: “he catch’d her by the pretty Leg,”then “pulling her gently to him” and “compelled her to sit inhis Lap” (52) for instance seem to gather three verbs thatdesignate Beauplaisir the active agent of the situation whereas Celiaseems to be assigned the passive role of the action. Additionally,Beauplaisir “gave her a handsome Sum of Gold” (53) after it, asif she was a prostitute.
In other words, although country maids havehigher social status than prostitutes, they also are considered assexual objects. Obviously, Fantomina herself does not consider thesesituations as restrictions since they allow her to entertain herselfwith Beauplaisir. Nevertheless, the author uses the character ofFantomina to denounce this odious duty of sexually satisfying menthat is attributed to women from any social class. Andagain, as Celia creates a new character to seduce Beauplaisir for thethird time since he grew “more weary of her than he had been ofFantomina,” (53) it allows the author to describe another injusticefound in inheritance.
Celia invents the sorrowful Widow Bloomer whoasks Beauplaisir for help. She explains that she has to “take careof the little Fortune he (her husband) left behind him, which beingin the Hands of a Brother of his in London, will be all carry’d offto Holland, where he is going to settle” and adds that if she doesnot reach the “Town before he leaves it”, she is “undone forever” (55). Here, Widow Bloom undoubtedly benefits fromBeauplaisir’s pity who accepts to help her and clearly does not missthe opportunity to comfort her in his ways: “He now took theLiberty of kissing away her Tears, and catching the Sighs as theyissued from her Lips” (56). However, the crucial aspect of thispassage does not reside in Beauplaisir’s insatiable appetite forwomen but rather in the explanation of inheritance’s issues regardingwomen. Indeed, property passed from man to man, leaving widowsdeprived of means. As if having no hand over their own bodies was notsufficient, women also had no right on wealth. So now that widows are left indigent,country maids and prostitutes are forced to engage in sexualrelationships and high-class women have to value more theirreputation than anything else, the purpose of masquerade becomesevident.
Masquerade Fantomina”effects self-transformations that move her downward in social rankand thereby allow her successfully to defy behavioural restrictionsimposed upon aristocratic women” (Craft 830). This means that hervarious disguises do not mirror a submission towards constraints butrather a resistance to them. Indeed, she gratifies her forbiddenpleasures by performing. Her main goal is to have Beauplaisir “alwaysraving, wild, impatient, longing, dying” (65). This continuedmasquerade allows her to maintain the ravishing passion between herlover and herself, which is something marriage slowly erases withtime. Indeed, marriage is far from being wished because of men’s”Unaccountableness” (60). Fantomina wonders “How do some Womenmake their Life a Hell, burning in fruitless Expectations, anddreaming out their Days in Hopes and Fears, then wake at last to allthe Horror of Dispair?” (59) after receiving two letters destinedto both Fantomina and Widow Bloomer that contain approximately thesame content. Fantomina precisely escapes from marriage because sheis sent to a convent in France.
Punished for her sins, this seeminglymoral ending where Fantomina feels guilty and humiliated for the restof her life probably hides another signification. Indeed, Fantominamight integrate a convent that resembles Aphra Behn’s GallopingNuns, which is an example ofconvent that does not constraint pleasures nor freedom (Craft 832). Secondly,as Haywood describes the roles of a prostitute, a country maid and awidow, which are women from lower classes than the real Fantomina,she renders them easier of access as their social rank increases andtherefore opposes the conditions of the eighteenth century society,yet conforms to male sexual fantasies: Fantomina is a virginalprostitute, Celia is an innocent and submissive country maid, WidowBloomer is quite rapidly consoled and Incognita, the last role theheroine adopts, is a mysterious aristocratic beauty who hurriesBeauplaisir to join her even if they have not had any previouscontact. Haywood therefore feeds men’s reveries. These two aspects ofHaywood’s story allow her to appear to conform to male literarystandards even though she cautiously displays her own thoughtsbetween the lines. It seems that the novel itself is a masqueradesince its external appearance allows it to achieve its true aim.
Onthe surface, the novel seems to follow social codes but the mask itwears hides the fact that it discusses forbidden topics in women’swritings, especially those which oppose the standards. Besides, the description of thesewomen and their restrictions mirror a great understanding of theirconditions. Indeed, the author herself faced limitations in hercareer as a female writer. As explained in the introduction, womenwere dictated the topics they were allowed to write about by men. Tosurmount these curbs, Haywood herself modified her appearance, andthis can be justified by all the professions she practised: frompublisher to bookseller, including translator and editor ofperiodicals, Haywood gained the understanding of the dimensions andconsequences of these constraints and created the character ofFantomina in which she would use performance to surmount them(Anderson 11).Conclusion Inconclusion, the story of Fantomina could be considered as a conductbook at first sight because the heroine is punished for her wrongbehaviour.
It might prevent young girls from playing with masqueradeto experience what is forbidden to their status. However, a moreprofound analysis of the text allows the reader to understandHaywood’s real intentions, which are to give voice to women who donot have the opportunity to express themselves on their ownconditions since men are the ones who take the decisions, and toexpose her own issues regarding the subject. The plot itself aims todivert male readers from the real meaning of Haywood’s novel. Forinstance, Fantomina’s punishment is in truth a symbol of the”continuation of that female society” (Craft 832) in whichunfaithful men are luckily missing. Moreover, her improbable roleswhich seem to target male fantasies and embody the sin in its purestform actually denounce social codes women suffered from.
First,Fantomina is betrayed into prostitution, then Celia becomes intimatewith Beauplaisir without her saying, the widow is impoverished by herhusband’s death and finally the stately lady has to value herreputation over her own virtue. The stratagem used by Fantomina is away of transgressing standards and taking control of her own life.Like Fantomina, female readers are in a way encouraged by Haywood toempower themselves and become leaders of their existence. Works CitedAnderson, Emily Hodgson.
“Performingthe Passions in Eliza Haywood’s ‘Fantomina’ and ‘Miss BetsyThoughtless.'” The Eighteenth Century, vol. 46, no. 1,2005, pp. 1–15.
JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41467959.Craft, Catherine A. “Reworking MaleModels: Aphra Behn’s ‘Fair Vow-Breaker,” Eliza Haywood’s’Fantomina,” and Charlotte Lennox’s ‘Female Quixote.'”The Modern Language Review, vol. 86, no.
4, 1991, pp.821–838. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3732539.
Harrington, Dana. “Gender, Commerce,and the Transformation of Virtue in Eighteenth-Century Britain.”Rhetoric Society Quarterly, vol. 31, no. 3, 2001, pp.
33–52.JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3886041.
